What did the rise of nationalism in 19th-century Europe lead to?

The rise of nationalism in 19th-century Europe was a significant force that contributed to various political and social changes, most notably independence movements and unifications in numerous regions. Nationalism fueled the desire for people who shared a common culture, language, or history to establish their own nation-states. This resulted in various movements aimed at unifying fragmented states or seeking independence from larger empires.

For example, the unification of Germany and Italy during this period was largely driven by nationalist sentiments. Leaders like Otto von Bismarck in Germany and Giuseppe Garibaldi in Italy harnessed these feelings to rally support for consolidating smaller states into unified nations. Similarly, various ethnic groups under the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires sought autonomy or complete independence, inspired by a growing sense of national identity.

In contrast, the other options do not accurately reflect the primary outcomes of 19th-century nationalism. The focus was not on increased cooperation among nations, but rather on asserting individual national identities, which often led to conflicts. Apathy toward national identity would run counter to the fervent nationalism that characterized the era, as most groups were actively seeking to express and promote their identity. Global disarmament efforts were not a prominent feature of this tumultuous